| PATENT NUMBER | This data is not available for free |
| PATENT GRANT DATE | March 18, 1997 |
| PATENT TITLE |
Anti-viral vaccines expressed in plants |
| PATENT ABSTRACT | The anti-viral vaccine of the present invention is produced in transgenic plants and then administered through standard vaccine introduction method or through the consumption of the edible portion of those plants. A DNA sequence encoding for the expression of a surface antigen of a viral pathogen is isolated and ligated to a promoter which can regulate the production of the surface antigen in a transgenic plant. This gene is then transferred to plant cells using a procedure that results in its integration into the plant genome, such as through the use of an Agrobacterium tumenfaciens plasmid vector system. Preferably, the foreign gene is expressed in an portion of the plant that is edible by humans or animals. In a preferred procedure, the vaccine is administered through the consumption of the edible plant as food, preferably in the form of a fruit or vegetable juice which can be taken orally |
| PATENT INVENTORS | This data is not available for free |
| PATENT ASSIGNEE | This data is not available for free |
| PATENT FILE DATE | March 4, 1993 |
| PATENT REFERENCES CITED |
Schodel, F. et al., "Recombinant HBV Core Particles Carrying Immunodominant B-cell Epitopes of the HBV Pre-S2 Region," Vaccines 90, published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (Cold Spring Harbor, NY), F. Brown, et al., eds., pp. 193-198, (1990). Melnick, J.L., "Virus Vaccines: Principles and Prospects," in Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 67, No. 2, pp. 105-112 (1989). de Aizpurua, H.J., et al., "Oral Vaccination, Identification of Classes of Proteins that Provoke an Immune Response Upon Oral Feeding," in J. Exp. Med., vol. 167, pp. 440-451 (1988). Valenzuela, P., et al., "Synthesis and Assembly of Hepatitis B Virus Surface Antigen Particles in Yeast," in Nature, vol. 298, pp. 347-350 (1982). Schodel, F., et al., "Expression of Hepatitis B Virus Core T-cell Epitopes and pre-S2 B-cell Epitope as Fusion Protein with LT-B in Salmonella for Oral Vaccination," in Progress in Hepatitis B Immunization, published by Colloqua INSERM/John Libbey Eurotext Ltd., Coursaget, P., et al., eds., pp. 43-50 (1990). Godet, M., et al., "Processing and Antigenicity of Entire and Anchor-Free Spike Glycoprotein S of Coronavirus TGEV Expressed by Recombinant Baculovirus," in Virology, vol. 185, pp. 732-740 (1991). Schodel, F., et al., "Expressions of Hepatitis B Virus Antigens in Attenuated Salmonellae for Oral Immunization," in Research in Microbiology (Paris), vol. 141, pp. 831-837 (1990). Ohtani, T., et al., "Normal and Lysine-Containing Zeins are Unstable in Transgenic Tobacco Seeds," in Plant Molecular Biology, vol. 16, pp. 117-128 (1991). Hoffman, L., et al., "A Modified Storage Protein in Synthesized, Processed, and Degraded in the Seeds of Transgenic Plants," in Plant Molecular Biology, vol. 11, pp. 717-729 (1988). Fromm, M., et al., "Expression of Genes Transferred into Monocot and Dicot Plant Cells by Electroporation," in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 82, pp. 5824-5828 (1985). Blair, J., "Test-Tube Gardens," Science 82, pp. 71-73 (1982). Rocha-Sosa, et al., "Both Developmental and Metabolic Signals Activate the Promoter of a Class 1 Patatin Gene," The EMBO Journal, vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 23-29 (1989). Sanchez, C.M., et al., "Genetic Evolution and Tropism of Transmissible Gastroenteritis Coronaviruses," Virology, vol. 190, pp. 92-105 (1992). Artnzen, Charles, et al., "Production of Candidate Oral Vaccines in Edible Tissues of Transgenic Plants," in Vaccines 94, pp. 339-344 (1994). Mason, Hugh S., et al., "Expression of Candidate Oral Vaccine Antigens in Transgenic Plants," Journal of Cellular Biochemistry Supplement, vol. 18a, p. 98 (1994). Aizpurua, H.J. de, Russell-Jones, G.J., "Oral Vaccination," J. Exp. Med., vol. 17, pp. 440-451 (1988). Brisson, N. and Hohn, T., "Plant Vectors: Cauliflower Mosaic Virus," in Methods in Enzymology, vol. 118, Academic Press, Inc.,-, pp. 659-668 (1986). Clontech Laboratories, Inc., Palo Alto, California, Product Catalog, p. 18.4, (1991). Forrest, B.D., "Women, HIV, and Mucosal Immunity," Lancet vol. 337, pp. 835-836 (1991). Kuriyama, S., Tsujii, T., Ishizaka, S., Kikuchi, E., Kinoshita, K., "Enhancing Effects of Oral Adjuvants on Anti-HBs Responses Induced by Hepatitis B Vaccine," Clin. Exp. Immunol., vol. 72, pp. 383-389 (1988).-Abstract-. Lubeck, M.D., David, A.R., Chengalvala, M., Natuk, R.J., Morin, E.E., Molnar-Kinber, K., Mason, B.B., Bhat, B.M., Mizutani, S., Hung, P.P, et al., "Immunogenicity and Efficacy Testing in Chimpanzees of an Oral Hepatitis B Vaccine Based on Live Recombinant Adenovirus," Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 86, pp. 6763-6737 (1989). -Abstract-. Mason, H. S., Lam, D. M-K., and Arntzen, C.J., "Expression of Hepatitis B Surface Antigen in Transgenic Plants," Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 89, pp. 11745-11749 (1992). Richman, L.K., Chitler, J.M., Brown, W.R., Hanson, D.G., and Nelson, M. V., "Enterically Induced Immunologic Tolerance, I. Induction of Suppressor T Lymphocytes by Intragastric Administration of Soluble Proteins," J. Immunol., vol. 121, pp. 2429-2434 (1978). Schodel, F. and Will, H., "Expression of Hepatitis B Virus Antigens In Attenuated Salmonellae for Oral Immunization," Res. Microbiol., vol. 141, pp. 831-837 (1990.-Abstract-. Touchette, Nancy, "AIDS Research and Mucosal Immune Studies Begin to Gel," The Journal of NIH Research, vol. 3, pp. 65-70 (1991). Zhang, S. and Castro, G.A., "Boosted Mucosal Immune Responsivemess in the Intestine by Actively Transported Hexose," Gastroenterol., vol. 103, pp. 1162-1166 (1992). P. Valenzuela et al. Nature, vol. 298 (1982) pp. 347-350. K. Toriyama et al. Bio/Technology, vol. 6, (1988) pp. 1072-1074. A. Hoekema et al. Nature, vol. 303 (1983) pp. 179-180. G. Neuhaus et al. Theor. Appl. Genet., vol. 75 (1987) pp. 30-36. H. Lorz et al Mol. Gen. Genet., vol. 199 (1985) pp. 178-182. H. de Aizpurua et al. J. Exp. Med., vol. 167 (1988) pp. 440-451. F. Schodel et al. Res. Microbiol., vol. 141 (1990) pp. 831-837. J. Blair, Science '82 (Jan./Feb. 1982) pp. 71-73. M. Fromm et al. P.N.A.S., vol. 82 (1985) pp. 5824-5828. Melnick Bulletin of WHO, vol. 67 (2) (1989) pp. 105-112. Schodel et al. Vaccines 90, CSHL Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 1990 pp. 193-198. Ohtani et al. Plant Molecular Biology, vol. 16 (1991) pp. 117-128. Hoffman et al. Plant Molecular Biology, vol. 11 (1988) pp. 717-729 |
| PATENT PARENT CASE TEXT | This data is not available for free |
| PATENT CLAIMS |
We claim: 1. A transgenic tobacco plant comprising a DNA sequence encoding a recombinant hepatitis B viral surface antigen protein, wherein said plant is capable of synthesizing a recombinant hepatitis B viral surface antigen protein which assembles into antigenic particles. 2. A method for producing an antigenic composition comprising the steps of: constructing a plasmid vector or a DNA fragment by operably linking a DNA sequence encoding a hepatitis B viral surface antigen protein which protein is capable of assembling into antigenic particles, to a tobacco plant-functional promoter capable of directing the expression of said protein--encoding DNA sequence in a tobacco plant; transforming a tobacco plant cell with said plasmid vector or DNA fragment; and, recovering said particles. 3. The method of claim 2 further comprising the step of; prior to recovering said particles, regenerating a transgenic tobacco plant from said transgenic tobacco plant cell. 4. The method of claim 2 wherein said recovery step further comprises obtaining an extract of said plant cell. 5. The method of claim 3 wherein said recovery step further comprises harvesting at least a portion of said transgenic plant. 6. The method of claim 2 wherein said plant cell is transformed utilizing an Agrobacterium system. 7. The method of claim 6 wherein said Agrobacterium system is an Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Ti plasmid system. 8. The method of claim 2 wherein said plant cell is transformed utilizing a microparticle bombardment transformation system. 9. The method of claim 2 wherein said plasmid vector is a binary vector. 10. The method of claim 2 wherein said plasmid vector is an integrative vector. 11. The method of claim 2 wherein said plasmid vector is pB121. 12. The method of claim 2 wherein said plant cell is transformed by microinjection. 13. The method of claim 2 wherein said plant cell is transformed by polyethylene glycol mediated uptake. 14. The method of claim 2 wherein said plant cell is transformed by electroporation. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| PATENT DESCRIPTION |
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION This invention relates generally to vaccines and more particularly to the production of oral vaccines in edible transgenic plants and the administration of the oral vaccines such as through the consumption of the edible transgenic plants by humans and animals. Diseases have been a plague on civilization for thousands of years, affecting not only man but animals. In economically advanced countries of the world, diseases are 1) temporarily disabling; 2) permanently disabling or crippling; or 3) fatal. In the lesser developed countries, diseases tend to fall into the latter two categories, permanently disabling or crippling and fatal, due to many factors, including a lack of preventative immunization and curative medicine. Vaccines are administered to humans and animals to induce immunity via antibody production or cell-mediated immunity against viruses, bacteria, and other types of pathogenic organisms. In the economically advanced countries of the world, vaccines have brought many diseases under control. In particular, many vital diseases are now prevented due to the development of immunization programs. The virtual disappearance of smallpox, certainly, is an example of the effectiveness of a vaccine worldwide. But many vaccines for such diseases as poliomyelitis, measles, mumps, rabies, foot and mouth, and hepatitis B are still too expensive for the lesser developed countries to provide to their large human and animal populations. Lack of these preventative measures for animal populations can worsen the human condition by creating food shortages. The lesser developed countries do not have the monetary funds to immunize their populations with currently available vaccines. Not only the cost of producing the vaccine is limiting, but the further cost of the professional administration of the vaccine is prohibitive in many cases, especially for vaccines that require multiple doses to maintain immunity. Therefore, often, the countries that need the vaccines the most can afford them the least. Underlying the development of traditional vaccines is the ability to grow the disease causing agent in large quantities. At the present, most vaccines are produced from killed or live attenuated pathogens. If the pathogen is a virus, large amounts of the virus must be grown in an animal host or cultured animal cells. If a live attenuated virus is utilized, it must be clearly proven to lack virulence while retaining the ability to induce humoral and cellular immunity. If a killed virus is utilized, the vaccine must demonstrate the capacity of surviving antigens to induce immunization. Additionally, surface antigens, the major viral particles which induce immunity, may be isolated and administered to proffer immunity in lieu of utilizing live attenuated or killed viruses. Vaccine manufacturers often employ complex technology entailing high costs for both the development and production of the vaccine. Concentration and purification of the vaccine is required, whether it is made from the whole bacteria, virus, other pathogenic organism or a sub-unit thereof. The high cost of purifying a vaccine in accordance with Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations makes oral vaccines prohibitively expensive to produce because they require ten to fifty times more than the regular quantity of vaccine per dose than a vaccine which is parenterally administered. Of all the viral vaccines being produced today only a few are being produced as oral vaccines. According to FDA guidelines, efficacy of vaccines for humans must be demonstrated in animals by demonstrating evidence for humoral and cellular immunity and by resistance to infection and disease upon challenge with the pathogen. When the safety and immunogenicity levels are satisfactory, FDA clinical studies are then conducted in humans. A small carefully controlled group of volunteers are enlisted from the general population to begin human trials. This begins the long and expensive process of testing. It may take years before it can be determined whether the candidate vaccine can be given to the general population. If the trials are successful, the vaccine may then be mass produced and sold to the public. Even after these precautions are taken, problems can arise. With the killed virus vaccines, there is always a chance that one of the live viruses has survived and vaccination may lead to isolated cases of the disease. Moreover, since both the killed and live attenuated types of virus vaccines are made from viruses grown in animal host cells, the vaccines are sometimes contaminated with cellular material from the animal host which can cause adverse, sometimes fatal, reactions in the vaccine recipient. Legal liability of the vaccine manufacturer for those who are harmed by a rare adverse reaction to a new or improved vaccine necessitates expensive insurance which ultimately adds to the cost of the vaccine. Some vaccines have other disadvantages. Single inoculations of vaccines prepared from whole killed virus generally stimulate the development of circulating antibodies (IgM, IgG) thereby conferring a limited degree of immunity which usually requires boosting through the administration of additional doses of vaccine at specific time intervals. Live attenuated viral vaccines, while much more effective, have limited shelf-life and storage problems requiring maintaining vaccine refrigeration during delivery to the field..sup.1 Efforts today are being made to produce less expensive vaccines which can be administered in a less costly manner. Recombinants or mutants can be produced that serve in place of live virus vaccines. The development of specific deletion mutants that alter the virus, but do not inactivate it, yield vaccines that can replicate but cannot revert to virulence. Recombinant DNA techniques are being developed to insert the gene coding for the immunizing protein of one virus into the genome of a second, avirulent virus type that can be administered as the vaccine. Recombinant vaccines may be prepared by means of a vector virus such as vaccinia virus or by other methods of gene splicing. Vectors may include not only avirulent viruses but bacteria as well. A live recombinant hepatitis A vaccine has been constructed using attenuated Salmonella typhimurium as the delivery vector via oral administration..sup.1 Various avirulent viruses have been used as vectors. The gene for hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) has been introduced into a gene non-essential for vaccinia replication. The resulting recombinant virus has elicited an immune response to the hepatitis B virus in test animals. Additionally, researchers have used attenuated bacterial cells for expressing hepatitis B antigen for oral immunization. Importantly, when whole cell attenuated Salmonella expressing recombinant hepatitis antigen were fed to mice, anti-viral T and B cell immune responses were observed. These responses were generated after a single oral immunization with the bacterial cells resulting in high-titers of the immune responsive cells. See, e.g., "Expression of hepatitis B virus antigens in attenuated Salmonella for oral immunization," F. Schodel and H. Will, Res. Microbiol., 141:831-837 (1990). Others have had similar success with oral administration routes for recombinant hepatitis antigens. See, e.g., M. D. Lubeck et al., "Immunogenicity and efficiacy testing in chimpanzees of an oral hepatitis B vaccine based on live recombinant adenovirus," Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 86:6763-6767 (1989); S. Kuriyama, et al., "Enhancing effects of oral adjuvants on anti-HBs responses induced by hepatitis B vaccine," Clin. Exp. lmmunol. 72:383-389 (1988); J. C. Nedrud and N. Sigmund, "Cholera Toxin as a Mucosal Adjuvant: III. Antibody responses to nontarget dietary antigens are not increased," Reg.--Immunol. 3:217-222 (1991); J. D. Clements, et al., "Adjuvant activity of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin and effect on the induction of oral tolerance in mice to unrelated protein antigens," Vaccine 6:269-277 (1988); K. S. Chen and W. Strober, "Cholera holotoxin and its B subunit enhance Peyer's patch B cell responses induced by orally administered influenza virus: disproportionate cholera toxin enhancement of the IgA B cell response," Eur. J. Immunol. 20:433-436 (1990). Other virus vectors may possess large genomes, e.g. the herpesvirus. The oral adenovirus vaccine has been modified so that it carries the HBsAg immunizing gene of the hepatitis B virus. Chimeric polio virus vaccines have been constructed of which the completely avirulent type 1 virus acts as a vector for the gene carrying the immunizing VP1 gene of type 3..sup.1 Immunity to a pathogenic infection is based on the development of an immune response to specific antigens located on the surface of a pathogenic organism. For enveloped viruses, the important antigens are the surface glycoproteins. Glycosylation of viral surface glycoproteins is not always essential for antigenicity..sup.1 Unglycosylated herpesvirus proteins synthesized in bacteria have been shown to produce neutralizing antibodies in test animals..sup.1 However, where recombinant antigens such as HBsAg are produced in organisms requiting complex fermentative processes and machinery, the costs and access can be prohibitive. Viral genes which code for a specific surface antigen that produces immunity in humans or animals, can be cloned into plasmids. The cloned DNA can then be expressed in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells if appropriately engineered constructions are used. The immunizing antigens of hepatitis B virus, .sup.2 foot and mouth, .sup.3 rabies virus, herpes simplex virus, and the influenza virus have been successfully synthesized in bacteria or yeast cells..sup.1 Animal and human subjects infected by a pathogen mount an immune response when overcoming the invading microorganism. They do so by initiating at least one of three branches of the immune system: mucosal, humoral or cellular. Mucosal immunity largely results from the production of secretory IgA antibodies in the secretions that bathe mucosal surfaces in the respiratory tract, the gastrointestinal tract, the genitourinary tract and the secretory glands. McGhee, J. R. et al. Annals NY Acad. Sci.409:409 (1983). Mucosal antibodies act to limit colonization of the pathogen on mucosal surfaces, thus establishing a first line of defense against invasion. The production of mucosal antibodies can be initiated by local immunization of the secretory gland or tissue or by presentation of the antigen to either the gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT; Peyer's Patches) or the bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT). Cebra, J. J. et al. Cold Spring Harbor Syrup. Quant. Biol. 41:210 (1976); Bienenstock, J. M., Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 107:53 (1978); Weisz-Carrington, P. et al., J. Immunol. 123:1705 (1979); McCaughan, G. et al., Internal Rev. Physiol. 28:131 (1983). Humoral immunity, on the other hand, results from the production of circulating antibodies in the serum (especially IgG and IgM), precipitating phagocytosis of invading pathogens, neutralization of viruses, or complement-mediated cytotoxicity against the pathogen. See, Hood et al. supra. Others have noted that the induction of serum or mucosal antibody (humoral or cellular) responses to orally administered antigens, however, may be problematic. Generally, such oral administration requires relatively large quantities of antigen since the amount of the antigen that is actually absorbed and capable of eliciting an immune response is usually low. Thus, the amount of antigen required for oral administration generally far exceeds that required for parenteral administration. de Aizpurua and Russell-Jones, J. Exp. Med. 167:440-451 (1988). However, it has been found that the systemic and mucosal immune systems may be stimulated by feeding low doses of certain classes of proteins. In particular, this may be achieved with proteins which share the property of being able to bind specifically to various glycolipids and glycoproteins located on the surface of the cells on the mucosal membrane. Such proteins, called "mucosal immunogens" have been found to include viral antigens such as viral hemagglutinin. Moreover, dose-response experiments comparing oral with intramuscular administration revealed that oral presentation of mucosal immunogens was remarkably efficient in eliciting a serum antibody (humoral or cellular) response to the extent that the response elicited by oral presentation was only slightly lower than that elicited by intramuscular injection of the mucosal immunogen. de Aizupurua and Russell-Jones, supra. The hypothesis proposed by these workers that such mucosal immunogens shared a common ability to bind glycosylated surface proteins on the mucosal membrane was at least partially confirmed by the inhibition of mucosal uptake of these mucosal immunogens by certain high levels of three specific sugars (galactose, lactose or sorbitol). Other sugars, fructose (the principal sugar found in many plant fruits) mannose and melibiose, did not inhibit mucosal immunogens from eliciting antibodies. de Aizupurua and Russell-Jones, supra. Others have found that certain sugars may, in fact, boost mucosal responses in the intestine. See, e.g., "Boosted Mucosal Immune Responsiveness in the Intestine by Actively Transported Hexose," S. Zhang and G. A. Castro, Gastroenterol, 103:1162-1166 (1992). Recent advances in genetic engineering have provided the requisite tools to transform plants to contain foreign genes. Plants that contain the transgene in all cells can then be regenerated and can transfer the transgene to their offspring in a Mendelian fashion..sup.4 Both monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants have been stably transformed. For example, tobacco, potato and tomato plants are but a few of the dicotyledenous plants which have been transformed by cloning a gene which encodes the expression of 5-enolpyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate synthase..sup.5 Plant transformation and regeneration in dicotyledons by Agrobacterium tumefaciens (A. tumefaciens) is well documented. The application of the Agrobacterium tumefaciens system with the leaf disc transformation method.sup.6 permits efficient gene transfer, selection and regeneration. Monocotyledons have also been found to be capable of genetic transformation by Agrobacterium tumefaciens as well as by other methods such as direct DNA uptake mediated by PEG (polyethylene glycol), or electroporation. Successful transfer of foreign genes into corn.sup.7 and rice,.sup.8,9 as well as wheat and sorghum protoplasts has been demonstrated. Rice plants have been regenerated from untransformed and transformed protoplasts. New methods such as microinjection and particle bombardment may offer simpler and even more efficient means of transformation and regeneration of monocotyledons..sup.10 Attempts to produce transgenic plants expressing bacterial antigens of Escherichia coli and of Streptococcus mutans have been made (Curtiss and Ihnen, WO 90/0248, 22 Mar. 1990). However, no transgenic plants have been constructed expressing viral antigens such as HBsAg. In particular, no such plants have been obtained which are capable of expressing viral antigens capable of eliciting an immune response as a mucosal immunogen. Moreover, no such plants have been obtained capable of producing particles which are antigenically and physically similar to the commercially available HBsAg viral antigens derived from human serum or recombinant yeast. Thus, while prior approaches to obtaining less expensive and more accessible vaccines have been attempted, there remains a need to provide alternative sources of such vaccines for new antigens. For instance, while vaccines such as HBsAg have been produced using antigen particles derived from human serum and recombinant yeast cells, both sources require greater expense and provide lower accessibility to technically underdeveloped nations. Furthermore, while certain bacterial antigens may be expressed in transgenic plants, it is unknown whether antigens associated with human or animal viruses may be expressed in a form physically and antigenically similar to antigens used in commercial vaccines derived from human serum or recombinant yeasts. In particular, prior art approaches have failed to provide such commercially viable antigen from plants made to express transgenic hepatitis B viral antigens. Viral antigens, anti-viral vaccines and transgenic plants expressing the same as well as methods of making and using such compositions of matter are needed which provide inexpensive and highly accessible sources of such medicines. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Recombinant viral antigens, anti-viral vaccines and transgenic plants expressing the same are provided by the present invention. These compositions of matter are demonstrated by the present invention to be made and used by the methods of the invention in a manner which is potentially less expensive as well as more accessible to lower technological societies which rely chiefly on agricultural methods to provide essential raw materials. More particularly, the present invention overcomes at least some of the disadvantages of the prior art by providing antigens produced in transgenic plants which antigens are antigenically and physically similar to those currently used in the manufacture of anti-viral vaccines derived from human serum or recombinant yeasts. In a preferred embodiment, these compositions of matter and methods provide transgenic plants, recombinant viral antigens and anti-viral vaccines related to the causative agent of human and animal viral diseases. The diseases of particular interest are those diseases in which the virus possesses an antigen capable, in at least the native state of the virus, of eliciting immune responses, particularly mucosal immune responses. In an embodiment of preference, the pathogen from which the antigen is derived is the hepatitis pathogen. In one embodiment, the compositions of matter and methods of the invention relate to oral vaccines introduced by consumption of a transgenic plant-derived antiviral vaccine. Such a plant derived vaccine may take various forms including purified and partially purified plant derived viral antigen as well as whole plant, whole plant parts such as fruits, leaves, stems as well as crude extracts of the plant or plant parts. In general, the preferred state of the composition of matter which is used to induce an immune response (i.e., whole plant, plant part, crude plant extract, partially purified antigen or extensively purified antigen) will depend upon the ability of the immunogen to elicit a mucosal response, the dosage level of the plant derived antigen required to elicit a mucosal response, and the need to overcome interference of mucosal immunity by other substances in the chosen composition of matter (i.e., sugars, pyrogens, toxins). The present invention overcomes the deficiencies of the prior art by producing oral vaccines in one or more tissues of a transgenic plant, thereby availing large human and animal populations of an inexpensive means of vaccine production and administration. In a preferred embodiment the edible fruit, juice, grain, leaves, tubers, stems, seeds, roots or other plant parts of the vaccine producing transgenic plant is ingested by a human or an animal thus providing a very inexpensive means of immunization against disease. Purification expense and adverse reactions inherent in existent vaccine production are thereby avoided. The invention also provides a novel and inexpensive source of antigen for more traditional vaccine delivery modes. These and other aspects of the present invention will become apparent from the following description and drawings. In one embodiment, the oral vaccine of the present invention is produced in edible transgenic plants and then administered through the consumption of a part of those edible plants. A DNA sequence encoding the expression of a surface antigen of a pathogen is isolated and ligated into a plasmid vector containing selection markers. A promoter which regulates the production of the surface antigen in the transgenic plant is included in the same plasmid vector upstream from the surface antigen gene to ensure that the surface antigen is expressed in desired tissues of the plant. Preferably, the foreign gene is expressed in a portion of the plant that is edible by humans or animals. For some uses, such as with human infants, it is preferred that the edible food be a juice from the transgenic plant which can be taken orally. In another embodiment, the vaccines (oral and otherwise) are provided by deriving recombinant viral antigens from the transgenic plants of the invention in at least a semi-purified form prior to inclusion into a vaccine. The present invention produces vaccines inexpensively. Further, vaccines from transgenic plants can not only be produced in the increased quantity required for oral vaccines but can be administered orally, thereby also reducing cost. The production of an oral vaccine in edible transgenic plants may avoid much of the time and expense required for FDA approval and regulation relating to the purification of the vaccine. A principal advantage of the present invention is the humanitarian good which can be achieved through the production of inexpensive oral vaccines which can be used to vaccinate the populations of lesser developed countries who otherwise could not afford expensive oral vaccines manufactured under present methods or vaccines which require parenteral administration. Thus, the invention provides for a recombinant mammalian viral protein expressed in a plant cell, which protein is known to elicit an antigenic response in a mammal in at least the native state of the virus. Preferably, the recombinant viral protein of the invention will also be one which is known to function as an antigen or immunogen (used interchangeably herein) as a recombinant protein when expressed in standard pharmaceutical expression systems such as yeasts or bacteria or where the viral protein is recovered from mammalian sera and shown to be antigenic. More preferably still, the antigenic/immunogenic protein of the invention will be a protein known to be antigenic/immunogenic when the protein as derived from the native virus, mammalian sera or from standard pharmaceutical expression systems and used to induce the immune response through an oral mode of introduction. In its most preferred embodiment, the recombinant mammalian viral protein, known to be antigenic in its native state, will be a protein which upon expression in the plant cells of the invention, retains at least some portion of the antigenicity it possesses in the native state or as recombinantly expressed in standard pharmaceutical expression systems. As used herein, a response of the immune system to an antigen or immunogen of the invention may be either humoral or cellular. Thus, the antigen/immunogen may elicit an immune response in its native state by interacting with vertebrate B cells (humoral) which secrete antibodies specific for the antigen. Alternatively, the antigen of the invention may elicit an immune response through cell-mediated immunity (cellular). In such cases, the antigen/immunogen interacts with vertebrate T cells culminating in activated T cells which then attack antigen usually present on the surface of the body's own viral infected cells. In either case, an immune response to the antigen/immunogen has occurred for purposes of the invention. For ease of description, a reference to antibody (humoral or cellular) herein includes any immune response whether it is actual antibody (humoral or cellular) production by B cells or whether it is activated T cells in response to the antigen. The immunogen of the invention is one derived from a mammalian virus and which is then expressed in a plant. In certain preferred embodiments, the mammalian virus from which the antigen is derived will be a pathogenic virus of the mammal. Thus, it is anticipated that some of the most useful plant-expressed viral immunogens will be those derived from a pathogenic virus of a mammal such as a human. The immunogens of the invention are preferably produced in plants where at least a portion of the plant is edible. For the purposes of this invention, an edible plant or portion thereof is one which is not toxic when ingested by the mammal to be treated with the vaccine produced in the plant. Thus, for instance, many of the common food plants will be of particular utility when used in the compositions and methods of the invention. However, no nutritive value need be obtained when ingesting the plants of the invention in order for such a plant to be included within the types of the plants covered by the claimed invention. Moreover, in some cases, for instance in the domestic potato, a plant may still be considered edible as used herein, although some tissues of the plant, but not the entire plant, may be toxic when ingested (i.e., while potato tubers are not toxic and thus falling within the definitions of the claimed invention, the fruit of the potato is toxic when ingested). In such cases, such plants are still included within the definition of the claimed invention. The immunogen of the invention, in a preferred embodiment, is a mucosal immunogen. For the purposes of the invention, a mucosal immunogen is an immunogen which has the ability to specifically prime the mucosal immune system. In a more highly preferred embodiment, the mucosal immunogens of the invention are those mucosal immunogens which prime the mucosal immune system and/or stimulate the humoral immune response in a dose-dependent manner, without inducing systemic tolerance and without the need for excessive doses of antigen. Systemic tolerance is defined herein as a phenomenon occurring with certain antigens which are repeatedly fed to a mammal resulting in a specifically diminished subsequent anti-antigen response. Of course, while the immunogens of the invention when used to induce a mucosal response may also induce a systemic tolerance, the same immunogen when introduced parenterally will typically retain its immunogenicity without developing tolerance. A mucosal response to the immunogens of the invention is understood to include any response generated when the immunogen stimulates the mucosal immune system. Typically, the GALT will be activated by feeding of the immunogen orally to a subject mammal. Using this route of introduction of the immunogen to the mucosal membranes provides access to the small intestine M cells which overlie the Peyer's Patches and other lymphoid clusters of the gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT). However, any mucosal membrane accessible for contact with the immunogens of the invention is specifically included within the definition of such membranes (e.g., mucosal membranes of the air passages accessible by inhaling, mucosal membranes of the terminal portions of the large intestine accessible by suppository, etc.). Thus, the immunogens of the invention may be used to induce both mucosal as well as humoral responses. Where the immunogens of the invention are subjected to adequate levels of purification as further described herein, these immunogens may be introduced parenterally such as by muscular injection. Similarly, while preferred embodiments of the invention include feeding of relatively unpurified immunogen preparations (e.g., portions of edible plants, purees of such portions of plants, etc.), the introduction of the immunogen to stimulate the mucosal response may equally well occur through first subjecting the plant source of the immunogen to various purification procedures detailed herein or incorporated specifically by reference herein followed by introduction of such a purified immunogen through any of the modes discussed above for accessing the mucosal membranes. The recombinant immunogens of the invention may represent the entire amino acid sequence of the native immunogen of the virus from which it is derived. However, in certain embodiments of the invention, the recombinant immunogen may represent only a portion of the native molecule's sequence. In either case, the immunogen may be fused to another peptide, polypeptide or protein to form a chimeric protein. The fusion of the molecules is accomplished either post-translationally through covalent bonding of one to another (e.g., covalent bonding of plant produced hepatitis B viral immunogen with whole hen egg lysozyme) or pretranslationally using recombinant DNA techniques (see e.g., supra discussion of polio virus vaccines), both of which methods are known well to those of skill in the art. In certain embodiments, the immunogen of the invention will be an immunogen derived from a hepatitis virus. In particular embodiments, the hepatitis B virus surface antigen will be selected. Thus, in a highly preferred embodiment, a viral mucosal immunogen derived from a hepatitis virus is recombinantly expressed in a plant and is capable, in the native state of the virus or as a recombinant protein expressed in any standard pharmaceutical expression system, of eliciting an immune response, particularly a mucosal immune response. In other embodiments of the invention, a transgenic plant comprising a plant expressing a recombinant viral immunogen derived from a mammalian virus is provided. For purposes of the invention, a transgenic plant is a plant expressing in at least some of the cells of the plant a recombinant viral immunogen. The transgenic plant of the invention, in preferred embodiments, is an edible plant, where the immunogen is a mucosal immunogen, or more preferably where a mucosal immunogen capable of binding a glycosylated molecule on the surface of a membrane of a mucosal cell, and in some embodiments where the immunogen is a chimeric protein. In other preferred embodiments, the transgenic plant of the invention will be a transgenic plant expressing a recombinant viral mucosal immunogen of hepatitis virus, where the mucosal immunogen is capable of eliciting an immune response, particularly a mucosal immune response, in the native state of the virus or as derived from standard pharmaceutical expression systems. Also claimed herein are compositions of matter known as vaccines, where such vaccines are vaccines comprising a recombinant viral immunogen expressed in a plant. For the purposes of the invention, a vaccine is a composition of matter which, when contacted with a mammal, is capable of eliciting an immune response. As described above, certain preferred vaccines of the invention will be those vaccines useful against mammalian viruses as a mucosal immunogen, and more preferably as vaccines wherein the mucosal immunogen is capable of stimulating GALT. In some embodiments, the vaccine may comprise a chimeric protein immunogen. In other embodiments, the vaccine of the invention will comprise an immunogen derived from a hepatitis virus. In still other preferred embodiments, the vaccine of the invention will comprise a mucosal immunogen of hepatitis virus expressed in a plant, where the mucosal immunogen is capable of eliciting an immune response, particularly a mucosal immune response, in the native state of the virus or as derived from standard pharmaceutical expression systems. A food composition is also provided by the invention which comprises at least a portion of a transgenic plant capable of being ingested for its nutritional value, said plant comprising a plant expressing a recombinant viral immunogen. For the purposes of the invention, a plant or portion thereof is considered to have nutritional value when it provides a source of metabolizable energy, supplementary or necessary vitamins or co-factors, roughage or otherwise beneficial effect upon ingestion by the subject mammal. Thus, where the mammal to be treated with the food is an herbivore capable of bacterial-aided digestion of cellulose, such a food might be represented by a transgenic monocot grass. Similarly, although transgenic lettuce plants do not substantially contribute energy sources, building block molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates or fats, nor other necessary or supplemental vitamins or cofactors, a lettuce plant transgenic for the viral immunogen of a mammalian virus used as a food for that mammal would fall under the definition of a food as used herein if the ingestion of the lettuce contributed roughage to the benefit of the mammal, even if the mammal could not digest the cellulosic content of lettuce. As described in the compositions of matter recited above, certain preferred foods of the invention will include foods where the immunogen is a mucosal immunogen, or where mucosal immunogen is capable of binding a glycosylated molecule on the surface of a membrane of a mucosal cell, or where the immunogen is a chimeric protein or where, the immunogen is an immunogen derived from a hepatitis virus. Thus, in a highly preferred embodiment, the food of the claimed invention will comprise at least a portion of a transgenic plant capable of being ingested for its nutritional value, where the plant expresses a recombinant viral mucosal immunogen of hepatitis virus, and where the mucosal immunogen is capable of binding a glycosylated molecule on a surface of a membrane of a mucosal cell. In any case, the foods of the invention may be those portions of a plant including the fruit, leaves, stems, roots, or seeds of said plant. Of particular importance to the compositions and methods of the claimed invention are certain plasmid constructions useful in obtaining the plants, immunogens, vaccines, and foods of the invention. Thus, plasmid vectors for transforming a plant are claimed comprising a DNA sequence encoding a mammalian viral immunogen and a plant-functional promoter operably linked to the DNA sequence capable of directing the expression of the immunogen in said plant. In certain embodiments, the plasmid vector further comprises a selectable or scorable marker gene to facilitate the detection of the transformed cell or plant. In certain embodiments, plasmid vector of the invention will comprise the plant promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus, CaMV35S. As with other compositions of matter described above, certain preferred embodiments of the plasmid vector of the invention will be those where the plant transformed by the plasmid vector is edible, or where the immunogen encoded by the plasmid vector is a mucosal immunogen, or more preferably where the immunogen encoded by the plasmid vector is capable of eliciting an immune response, particularly a mucosal immune response, in the native state of the virus or as derived from standard pharmaceutical expression systems, or where the encoded immunogen is a chimeric protein, or where the encoded immunogen is an immunogen derived from a hepatitis virus. Thus, in a highly preferred embodiment, the plasmid vector of the invention useful for transforming a plant comprises a DNA sequence encoding a mucosal immunogen of hepatitis virus, where the mucosal immunogen is capable of eliciting an immune response, particularly a mucosal immune response, in the native state of the virus or as derived from standard pharmaceutical expression systems and where a plant-functional promoter is operably linked to the DNA sequence capable of directing the expression of the immunogen in the plant. In a very similar embodiment, the invention provides for DNA fragments useful for microparticle bombardment transformation of a plant. Methods for constructing transgenic plant cells are also provided by the invention comprising the steps of constructing a plasmid vector or a DNA fragment by operably linking a DNA sequence encoding a viral immunogen to a plant-functional promoter capable of directing the expression of the immunogen in the plant and then transforming a plant cell with the plasmid vector or DNA fragment. Where preferred, the method may be extended to produce transgenic plants from the transformed cells by including a step of regenerating a transgenic plant from the transgenic plant cell. A method for producing a vaccine is also provided by the claimed invention, comprising the steps of constructing a plasmid vector or a DNA fragment by operably linking a DNA sequence encoding a vital immunogen to a plant-functional promoter capable of directing the expression of the immunogen in the plant, transforming a plant cell with the plasmid vector or DNA fragment, and then recovering the immunogen expressed in the plant cell for use as a vaccine. Again, where preferred, the method provides for an additional step prior to recovering the immunogen for use as a vaccine, of regenerating a transgenic plant from the transgenic plant cell. The recovery of the immunogen from the plant cell or whole plant may take several embodiments. In one such embodiment, the method of recovering the immunogen of the invention is accomplished by obtaining an extract of the plant cell or whole plant or portions thereof. In embodiments where whole plants are regenerated by the methods of the invention, the recovery step may comprise merely harvesting at least a portion of the transgenic plant. The methods of the invention provide for any of a number of transformation protocols in order to transform the plant cells and plants of the invention. While certain preferred embodiments described below utilize particular transformation protocols, it will be understood by those of skill in the art that any transformation method may be utilized with in the definitions and scope of the invention. Such methods include microinjection, polyethylene glycol mediated uptake, and electroporation. Thus, certain preferred methods will utilize an Agrobacterium transformation system, in particular, where the Agrobacterium system is an Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Ti plasmid system. In other preferred methods, the plant cell is transformed utilizing a microparticle bombardment transformation system. Plants of particular interest in the methods of the invention include tomato plants and tobacco plants as will be described in more detail in the examples to follow. However, it will be understood by those of skill in the art of plant transformation that a wide variety of plant species are amenable to the methods of the invention. All such species are included within the definitions of the claimed invention including both dicotyledon as well as monocotyledon plants. As will be described in greater detail in the examples to follow, the methods of the invention by which plants are transformed may utilize plasmid vectors which are binary vectors. In other embodiments, the methods of the invention may utilize plasmids which are integrative vectors. In a highly preferred embodiment, the methods of the invention will utilize the plasmid vector pB121. Methods of administering any of the vaccines of the invention are also provided. In certain general embodiments, such methods comprise administering a therapeutic amount of the vaccine to a mammal. In more specific embodiments, these methods entail introduction of the vaccine either parenterally or non-parenterally into a mammalian subject. Where a non-parenteral introduction mode is selected, certain preferred embodiments will comprise oral introduction of the vaccine into said mammal. Whichever mode of introduction of the vaccine to the mammalian subject is selected, it will be understood by those skilled in the art of vaccination that the selected mode must achieve vaccination at the lowest dose possible in a dose-dependent manner and by so doing elicit serum and/or secretory antibodies against the immunogen of the vaccine with minimal induction of systemic tolerance. Other means of avoiding systemic tolerance known in the art have been discussed supra and are specifically incorporated herein by reference (see Lubeck et al., et seq., supra). Where a mucosal route of vaccination is selected, care should be taken to introduce the vaccine into the gut lumen of the mammal at low dosages and in forms which minimize the simultaneous introduction of interfering compounds such as galactose and galactose-like saccharides. In preferred embodiments, methods are provided by the invention of administering an edible portion of a transgenic plant, which transgenic plant expresses a recombinant viral immunogen, to a mammal as an oral vaccine against a virus from which said immunogen is derived. These methods comprise harvesting at least an edible portion of the transgenic plant, and feeding the harvested plant or portion thereof to a mammal in a suitable amount to be therapeutically effective as an oral vaccine in the mammal. Similarly, the invention provides for methods of producing and administering an oral vaccine, comprising the steps of constructing a plasmid vector or DNA fragment by operably linking a DNA sequence encoding a viral immunogen to a plant-functional promoter capable of directing the expression of the immunogen in a plant, transferring the plasmid vector into a plant cell, regenerating a transgenic plant from the cell, harvesting an edible portion of the regenerated transgenic plants, and feeding the edible portion of the plant to a mammal in a suitable amount to be therapeutically effective as an oral vaccine. It is this embodiment that will be of particular utility in underdeveloped countries committed to agricultural raw products as a main source of most necessities. Other objects and advantages of the invention will appear from the following description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a detailed description of the preferred embodiment of the invention, reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a diagrammatic plasmid construct illustrating the construction of the plasmid vector pHVA-1 containing the HBsAg gene for producing the HBsAg antigen in a plant; and FIG. 2 is a map of the coding sequence for two structural genes and their regulatory elements in the plasmid pHVA-1; and FIG. 3 is a diagrammatic plasmid construct illustrating the construction of the plasmid vector pHB101 containing the HBsAg gene for producing the HBsAg antigen in a plant; and FIG. 4 is a diagrammatic plasmid construct illustrating the construction of the plasmid vector pHB102 containing the HBsAg gene for producing the HBsAg antigen in a plant; and FIG. 5 is a map of the coding sequence for three structural genes and their regulatory elements in the plasmids pHB101 and pHB102; and FIG. 6A indicates the HBsAg mRNA levels in transgenic tobacco plants; and FIG. 6B indicates the HBsAg protein levels in transgenic tobacco plants; and FIG. 7 is a micrograph of immunoaffinity purified rHBsAg with a corresponding histogram; and FIG. 8 is a sucrose density gradient sedimentation of HBsAg from transgenic tobacco; and FIG. 9 is a buoyant density gradient sedimentation of HBsAg from transgenic tobacco. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The present invention has several components which include: using recombinant DNA techniques to create a plasmid vector which contains a DNA segment encoding one or more antigenic proteins which confer immunity in a human or an animal to a particular disease and for the expression of antigenic protein(s) in desired tissues of a plant; selecting an appropriate host plant to receive the DNA segment encoding antigenic protein(s) and subsequently produce the antigenic protein(s); transferring the DNA segment encoding the antigenic protein(s) from the plasmid vector into the selected host plant; regenerating the transgenic plant thereby producing plants expressing the antigenic protein(s) which functions as a vaccine(s); and administering an edible part of the transgenic plant containing the antigenic protein(s) as an oral vaccine to either a human or an animal by the consumption of a transgenic plant part. The present invention thereby provides for the production of a transgenic plant which when consumed as food, at least in part, by a human or an animal causes an immune response. This response is characterized by resistance to a particular disease or diseases. The response is the result of the production in the transgenic plant of antigenic protein(s). The production of the antigenic protein(s) is the result of stable genetic integration into the transgenic plant of DNA regions designed to cause regulated expression of antigenic protein(s) in the transgenic plants. Vaccine(s) and Their Administration The present invention may be used to produce any type vaccine effective in immunizing humans and animals against diseases. Viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites that cause disease in humans and animals can contain antigenic protein(s) which can confer immunity in a human or an animal to the causative pathogen. A DNA sequence encoding any of these viral, bacterial, fungal or parasitic antigenic proteins may be used in the present invention. Mutant and variant forms of the DNA sequences encoding a antigenic protein which confers immunity to a particular virus, bacteria, fungus or parasite in an animal (including humans) may also be utilized in this invention. For example, expression vectors may contain DNA coding sequences which are altered so as to change one or more amino acid residues in the antigenic protein expressed in the plant, thereby altering the antigenicity of the expressed protein. Expression vectors containing a DNA sequence encoding only a portion of an antigenic protein as either a smaller peptide or as a component of a new chimeric fusion protein are also included in this invention. The present invention is advantageously used to produce viral vaccines for humans and animals. The following table sets forth a list of vaccines now used for the prevention of viral diseases in humans. ______________________________________ Condition Route of Disease Source of Vaccine of Virus Administration ______________________________________ Poliomyelitis Tissue culture Live Oral (human diploid cell attenuated Subcutaneous line, monkey Killed kidney) Measles Tissue culture Live Subcutaneous (chick embryo) attenuated Mumps Tissue culture Live Subcutaneous (chick embryo) attenuated Rubella Tissue culture Live Subcutaneous (duck embryo, attenuated rabbit, or human diploid) Smallpox Lymph from calf or Live Intradermal sheep vaccinia Yellow Tissue cultures and Live Subcutaneous Fever eggs attenuated Viral Purified HBsAg Live Subcutaneous hepatitis B from "health" attenuated Subcutaneous carriers Re- Subunit combinant HBsAg from yeast Influenza Highly purified or Killed Subcutaneous subviral forms (chick embryo) Rabies Human diploid cell Killed Subcutaneous cultures Adenoviral Human diploid cell Live Oral infections cultures attenuated Japanese B Tissue culture Killed Subcutaneous encephalitis (hamster kidney) Varicella Human diploid cell Live Subcutaneous cultures attenuated ______________________________________ The present invention is also advantageously used to produce vaccines for animals. Vaccines are available to immunize pets and production animals. Diseases such as: canine distemper, rabies, canine hepatitis, parvovirus, and feline leukemia may be controlled with proper immunization of pets. Viral vaccines for diseases such as: Newcastle, Rinderpest, hog cholera, blue tongue and foot-mouth can control disease outbreaks in production animal populations, thereby avoiding large economic losses from disease deaths. Prevention of bacterial diseases in production animals such as: brucellosis, fowl cholera, anthrax and black leg through the use of vaccines has existed for many years. Today new recombinant DNA vaccines, e.g. rabies and foot and mouth, have been successfully produced in bacteria and yeast cells and can facilitate the production of a purified vaccine containing only the immunizing antigen. Veterinary vaccines utilizing cloned antigens for protozoans and helminths promise relief from parasitic infections which cripple and kill. The oral vaccine produced by the present invention is administered by the consumption of the foodstuff which has been produced from the transgenic plant producing the antigenic protein as the vaccine. The edible part of the plant is used as a dietary component while the vaccine is administered in the process. The present invention allows for the production of not only a single vaccine in an edible plant but for a plurality of vaccines into one foodstuff. DNA sequences of multiple antigenic proteins can be included in the expression vector used for plant transformation, thereby causing the expression of multiple antigenic amino acid sequences in one transgenic plant. Alternatively, a plant may be sequentially or simultaneously transformed with a series of expression vectors, each of which contains DNA segments encoding one or more antigenic proteins. For example, there are five or six different types of influenza, each requiring a different vaccine. A transgenic plant expressing multiple antigenic protein sequences can simultaneously elicit an immune response to more than one of these strains, thereby giving disease immunity even though the most prevalent strain is not known in advance. Vaccines produced in accordance with the present invention may also be incorporated into the feed of animals. This represents an important means to produce lower cost disease prevention for pets, production animals, and wild species. While the vaccines of the present invention will be preferably utilized directly as oral vaccines of the transgenic plant material, immunogenic compositions derived from the transgenic plant materials suitable for use as more traditional immune vaccines may be readily prepared from the transgenic plant materials described herein. Preferably, such immune compositions will comprise a material purified from the transgenic plant. Purification of the antigen may take many forms known well to those of skill in the art, in particular such purifications will likely track closely the purification techniques used successfully in obtaining vital antigen particles from recombinant yeasts (i.e., those containing HBsAg). In one embodiment, detailed in the examples to follow, HBsAg viral protein-containing particles, similar in many respects to those obtained from recombinant yeasts, were purified from transformed tobacco plants using a particular purification procedure. Whatever initial purification scheme is utilized, the purified material will also be extensively dialyzed to remove undesired small molecular weight molecules (i.e., sugars, pyrogens) and/or lyophilization of the thus purified material for more ready formulation into a desired vehicle. The preparation of vaccines is generally well understood in the art (e.g., those derived from fermentative yeast cells known well in the art of vaccine manufacture cite to Valenzuela et al Nature 298, 347-350 (1982), as exemplified by U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,608,251; 4,601,903; 4,599,231; 4,599,230; 4,596,792; and 4,578,770, all incorporated herein by reference. Typically, such vaccines are prepared as injectables, either as liquid solutions or suspensions. Solid forms suitable for solution in, or suspension in, liquid prior to injection may also be prepared. The preparation may also be emulsified. The active immunogenic ingredient is often mixed with excipients which are pharmaceutically acceptable and compatible with the active ingredient. Suitable excipients are, for example, water, saline, dextrose, glycerol, ethanol, or the like and combinations thereof. In addition, if desired, the vaccine may contain minor amounts of auxiliary substances such as wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering agents, or adjuvants which enhance the effectiveness of the vaccines. The vaccines are conventionally administered parenterally, by injection, for example, either subcutaneously or intramuscularly. Additional formulations which are suitable for other modes of administration include suppositories and, in some cases, oral formulations or aerosols. For suppositories, traditional binders and carriers may include, for example, polyalkalene glycols or triglycerides: such suppositories may be formed from mixtures containing the active ingredient in the range of 0.5% to 10%, preferably 1-2%. Oral formulations other than edible plant portions described in detail herein include such normally employed excipients as, for example, pharmaceutical grades of mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, sodium saccharine, cellulose, magnesium carbonate and the like. These compositions take the form of solutions, suspensions, tablets, pills, capsules, sustained release formulations or powders and contain 10-95% of active ingredient, preferably 25-70%. In many instances, it will be desirable to have multiple administrations of the vaccine, usually not exceeding six vaccinations, more usually not exceeding four vaccinations and preferably one or more, usually at least about three vaccinations. The vaccinations will normally be at from two to twelve week intervals, more usually from three to five week intervals. Periodic boosters at intervals of 1-5 years, usually three years, will be desirable to maintain protective levels of the antibodies. The course of the immunization may be followed by assays for antibodies for the supernatant antigens. The assays may be performed by labeling with conventional labels, such as radionuclides, enzymes, fluorescers, and the like. These techniques are well known and may be found in a wide variety of patents, such as U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,791,932; 4,174,384 and 3,949,064, as illustrative of these types of assays. Host Plant Selection A variety of plant species have been genetically transformed with foreign DNA, using several different gene insertive techniques..sup.10,22-27,29-32 Since important progress is being made to clone DNA coding regions for vaccine antigens for parasitic tropical diseases and veterinary parasitic diseases.sup.11-21 the present invention, will have important means of low cost production of vaccines in a form easily used for animal treatment. Since many edible plants used by humans for food or as components of animal feed are dicotyledenous plants, it is preferred to employ dicotyledons in the present invention, although monocotyledon transformation is also applicable especially in the production of certain grains useful for animal feed. The host plant selected for genetic transformation preferably has edible tissue in which the antigenic protein, a proteinaceous substance, can be expressed. Thus, the antigenic protein is expressed in a part of the plant, such as the fruit, leaves, stems, seeds, or roots, which may be consumed by a human or an animal for which the vaccine is intended. Although not preferred, a vaccine may be produced in a non-edible plant and administered by one of various other known methods of administering vaccines. Various other considerations are made in selecting the host plant. It is sometimes preferred that the edible tissue of the host plant not require heating prior to consumption since the heating may reduce the effectiveness of the vaccine for animal or human use. Also, since certain vaccines are most effective when administered in the human or animal infancy period, it is sometimes preferred that the host plant express the antigenic protein which will function as a vaccine in the form of a drinkable liquid. Plants which are suitable for the practice of the present invention include any dicotyledon and monocotyledon which is edible in part or in whole by a human or an animal such as, but not limited to, carrot, potato, apple, soybean, rice, corn, berries such as strawberries and raspberries, banana and other such edible varieties. It is particularly advantageous in certain disease prevention for human infants to produce a vaccine in a juice for ease of administration to humans such as tomato juice, soy bean milk, carrot juice, or a juice made from a variety of berry types. Other foodstuffs for easy consumption might include dried fruit. Methods of Gene Transfer into Plants There are various methods of introducing foreign genes into both monocotyledenous and dicotyledenous plants..sup.33,34 The principle methods of causing stable integration of exogenous DNA into plant genomic DNA include the following approaches: 1) Agrobacterium--mediated gene transfer;.sup.35,36,37,53 2) direct DNA uptake,.sup.38 including methods for direct uptake of DNA into protoplasts,.sup.8 DNA uptake induced by brief electric shock of plant cells,.sup.41,42 DNA injection into plant cells or tissues by particle bombardment,.sup.39,44-46 by the use of micropipette systems,.sup.43,47,48 or by the direct incubation of DNA with germinating pollen;.sup.40,49 or 3) the use of plant virus as gene vectors..sup.33,51 The Agrobacterium system includes the use of plasmid vectors that contain defined DNA segments that integrate into the plant genomic DNA. Methods of inoculation of the plant tissue vary depending upon the plant species and the Agrobacterium delivery system. A widely used approach is the leaf disc procedure which can be performed with any tissue explant that provides a good source for initiation of whole plant differentiation..sup.6 The Agrobacterium system is especially viable in the creation of transgenic dicotyledenous plants. As listed above there are various methods of direct DNA transfer into plant cells. In electroporation, the protoplasts are briefly exposed to a strong electric field. In microinjection, the DNA is mechanically injected directly into the cells using very small micropipettes. In microparticle bombardment, the DNA is adsorbed on microprojectiles such as magnesium sulfate crystals or tungsten particles, and the microprojectiles are physically accelerated into cells or plant tissues. The last principle method of vector transfer is the transmission of genetic material using modified plant viruses. DNA of interest is integrated into DNA viruses, and these viruses are used to infect plants at wound sites. In the preferred embodiment of the present invention, the Agrobacterium--Ti plasmid system is utilized..sup.53 The tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmids of A. tumefaciens contain a segment of plasmid DNA called transforming DNA (T-DNA) which is transferred to plant cells where it integrates into the plant host genome. The construction of the transformation vector system has two elements. First, a plasmid vector is constructed which replicates in Escherichia Coli (E. coli. This plasmid contains the DNA encoding the protein of interest (an antigenic protein in this invention); this DNA is flanked by T-DNA border sequences that define the points at which the DNA integrates into the plant genome. Usually a gene encoding a selectable marker (such as a gene encoding resistance to an antibiotic such as Kanamycin) is also inserted between the left border (LB) and right border (RB) sequences; the expression of this gene in transformed plant cells gives a positive selection method to identify those plants or plant cells which have an integrated T-DNA region..sup.52,53 The second element of the process is to transfer the plasmid from E. Coli to Agrobacterium. This can be accomplished via a conjugation mating system, or by direct uptake of plasmid DNA by Agrobacterium. For subsequent transfer of the T-DNA to plants, the Agrobacterium strain utilized must contain a set of inducible virulence (vir) genes which are essential for T-DNA transfer to plant cells..sup.53,54 Those skilled in the art should recognize that there are multiple choices of Agrobacterium strains and plasmid construction strategies that can be used to optimize genetic transformation of plants. They will also recognize that A. tumefaciens may not be the only Agrobacterium strain used. Other Agrobacterium strains such as A. rhizogenes might be more suitable in some applications. Methods of inoculation of the plant tissue vary depending upon the plant species and the Agrobacterium delivery system. A very convenient approach is the leaf disc procedure which can be performed with any tissue explant that provides a good source for initiation of whole plant differentiation. The addition of nurse tissue may be desirable under certain conditions. Other procedures such as the in vitro transformation of regenerating protoplasts with A. tumefaciens may be followed to obtain transformed plant cells as well.sup.33,53 This invention is not limited to the Agrobacterium-Ti plasmid system but should include any direct physical method of introducing foreign DNA into the plant cells, transmission of genetic material by modified plant viruses, and any other method which would accomplish foreign DNA transfer into the desired plant cells. Promoters Once the host plant has been selected and the method of gene transfer into the plant determined, a constitutive, a developmentally regulated, or a tissue specific promoter for the host plant is selected so that the foreign protein is expressed in the desired part(s) of the plant. Promoters which are known or found to cause transcription of a foreign gene in plant cells can be used in the present invention. Such promoters may be obtained from plants or viruses and include, but are not necessarily limited to: the 35S promoter of cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) (as used herein, the phrase "CaMV 35S" promoter includes variations of CaMV 35S promoter, e.g. promoters derived by means of ligations with operator regions, random or controlled mutagenesis, etc.); promoters of seed storage protein genes such as Zma10Kz or Zmag12 (maize zein and glutelin genes, respectively), light-inducible genes such as ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase small subunit (rbcS), stress induced genes such as alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh1), or "housekeeping genes" that express in all cells (such as Zmaact, a maize actin gene)..sup.4,55 This invention can utilize promoters for genes which are known to give high expression in edible plant parts, such as the patatin gene promoter from potato..sup.56 The plasmid constructed for plant transformation also usually contains a selectable or scorable marker gene. Numerous genes for this purpose have been identified..sup.54,57 The following are examples of the production of a vaccine for hepatitis B in a host transgenic tomato and tobacco plant and are presented to describe a preferred embodiment and the utility of the present invention but should not be construed as limiting the claims thereof. The DNA coding sequence for the hepatitis B surface antigen was selected for expression in a transgenic plant as Hepatitis B virus is one of the most widespread viral infections of humans which causes acute and chronic hepatitis and heptocellular carcinoma..sup.71 Tomato and tobacco plants were selected as the host plants to produce the hepatitis B recombinant surface antigen as examples of antigenic protein production in different plant parts. Expression of HbsAg in tobacco plants was accomplished by the method of Mason, H. S. Lam, and Arntzen, C. J., Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. Vol. 89, 11745-11749(1992), herein incorporated by reference. |
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